31 January, 1968. The opening of the new lunar year, the year of the Monkey, and the beginning of the Vietnamese Tet holiday. Tet in Vietnam is akin to a combination of Christmas and Independence Day in the United States. In 1968 the Tet holiday was also the start of the largest, most destructive Vietcong offensive against the American and South Vietnamese forces.
The North Vietnamese and Vietcong had spent the year of 1967 carefully coordinating and planning the Tet offensive, with the North Vietnamese launching a series of bloody encounters in the Central Highlands and the Mekong Delta. These battles served the purpose of drawing the American forces out of the cities and into the countryside, leaving the cities open for thorough reconnaissance by the Vietcong. These battles may have also given General William Westmoreland, Commander US Military Assistance, Vietnam (COMMUSMACV) a false sense of confidence. Fighting in the Mekong and the Central Highlands allowed for full use of American firepower, and Westmoreland had decided that the measure of our success in the war would be the number of enemy fighters we killed in combat. Fighter-bombers dropping napalm and high explosives on Vietcong and NVA troops added to the enemy body count, which became an obsession with Westmoreland as proof that we were attriting the enemy faster than they could regroup.
On 21 January, 1968, the North Vietnamese Army, assisted by Vietcong, launched a fierce attack on the Marine outpost at Khe Sanh. Westmoreland responded to this attack by flooding the area around Khe Sanh with more troops and the most massive concentration of aerial firepower in history. As the eyes of the world turned to Khe Sanh, the Vietcong prepared to launch a series of coordinated attacks against the major cities and provincial capitals of South Vietnam. Their job was made easier by the announcement by the South Vietnamese government that a cease fire for the Tet holiday would go into effect from 27 January until 3 February. Their job was also made easier by the fact that U.S. intelligence agencies had deduced that something major was brewing, but Westmoreland failed to adequately communicate this information to Washington or to his commanders in the field. When the attacks began to erupt, everyone was taken by surprise.
Preliminary attacks began on 30 January, with the transmission of the code phrase “Crack the sky, shake the Earth” to the VC forces preparing for the assault. Nha Trang, Ban Me Thout, Danang, and Pleiku were all attacked as the VC launched mortar attacks, followed up with waves of foot soldiers throwing grenades and linking up with local VC cadres to launch more mayhem.. On 31 January the full fury of the offensive erupted as 85,000 VC troops attacked cities all across South Vietnam. Some of the most devastating attacks came in the capital city of Saigon, where the U.S. embassy was nearly overrun. While the shock of the initial assaults took the American and South Vietnamese forces by surprise, they quickly overcame their surprise and began engaging the enemy with full force, with Hue City being the only city to fall to the VC. The US embassy grounds were quickly cleared, and once the battle was joined, the VC began to suffer enormous losses. The worst thing for a guerilla force to do is to come out in the open, which is what decimated the VC. Losses suffered by the VC during the assault eliminated them as a force in future combat operations.
The biggest impact of the offensive fell on the American people, who had been told by General Westmoreland and President Johnson that the enemy had “met his match” and that “there was light at the end of the tunnel” as 1967 came to a close. As Americans watched Marines and soldiers engaging an enemy “who had met his match”, they began to question what we had accomplished after nearly 4 years of combat. The offensive emboldened Democratic Senator Eugene McCarthy to challenge President Johnson for re-election, serving as the first real primary of the 1968 election year. In short, the offensive was a military failure for the VC, but a strategic victory, as the tepid support the American people had for the war began to dissipate. As combat continued over the next several weeks, President Johnson would be tested as no American wartime president has ever been tested.
Sunday, January 30, 2011
Friday, December 24, 2010
24 December 1968-Apollo VIII saves 1968
- 1968. What a tumultuous, calamitous, violent year, both in the United States and around the world. A short summation of some of the major events in the year some historians have dubbed “The Year that Everything Went Wrong”:
23 January-USS Pueblo and its crew are captured by North Korea; crew is held and tortured for nearly a year before they are released.
30 January-Tet offensive erupts as the North Vietnamese Army and Viet Cong attack nearly every provincial capital in South Vietnam.
12 March-Senator Eugene McCarthy decapitates President Johnson in the New Hampshire primary, mobilizing thousands of students who “get clean for Gene”
16 March-Senator Robert Kennedy announces that he will also seek the Democratic presidential nomination
31 March-President Johnson addresses the nation on the Vietnam War, announces a bombing halt and that negotiations will soon begin in Paris; he then stuns the nation and the world by stating that “I will not seek, and I will not accept the nomination of my party for another term as your President.” Vice President Hubert Humphrey enters the race.
4 April-Dr. Martin Luther King is assassinated in Memphis. Riots erupt across the nation the next day, which is Good Friday.
21 May-USS Scorpion (SSN-589) disappears while on patrol in the Med; all 99 sailors are lost at sea.
5 June-Senator Robert Kennedy is assassinated in Los Angeles after winning the California Democratic primary
21 August-Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact armed forces invade Czechoslovakia to crush the emerging democratic movement
28 August-As VP Humphrey is declared the presidential nominee of the Democratic Party at its convention in Chicago, a great riot erupts in the city, with television images of Chicago policemen using excessive force to quell student protestors who chant “the whole world is watching”. Earlier in the evening as Senator Abraham Ribicoff of Connecticut had decried Chicago Mayor Richard Daly’s “Gestapo tactics” from the convention podium, news cameras panned to Mayor Daly, who could be seen clearly shouting “fuck you, you kike son of a bitch.”
17 October-African-American sprinters John Carlos and Tommy Smith raise their black-gloved fists in the Black Power salute as the U.S. national anthem is played for their gold and silver medal awards. Not even the Olympics were free of controversy that year.
As the year came to a close, one shining moment reminded all of us here on Earth that we are all part of one human race, inhabiting the only planet known to be able to sustain our species. The Apollo VIII mission was launched on 21 December, with the never-before tried goal of entering lunar orbit and returning safely to Earth. The mission was commanded by Frank Borman, with Jim Lovell as Command Module pilot and William Anders as Lunar module pilot. The mission launched flawlessly, achieved lunar insertion trajectory perfectly, and executed a flawless burn that inserted them into lunar orbit on 24 December, Christmas Eve. On the fourth orbit of the moon, Frank Borman noticed something that no human had ever seen before: an Earthrise. He snapped a black and white photo. Minutes later William Anders got the color camera and snapped the photo that helped to inspire the first Earth Day in 1970. As the astronauts watched something that only they could see, Borman, his voice choking with emotion, said to Mission Control: “Fellas, we’ve just seen an Earthrise and it is truly wonderful!”
Later on the same orbit, the crew made a radio broadcast to Earth, which was listened to by almost a billion people worldwide. The men took turns reading from the first chapter of Genesis, verses 1-10, which are:
In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.
Now the earth was formless and empty, darkness was over the surface of the deep, and the Spirit of God was hovering over the waters.
And God said, “Let there be light,” and there was light. God saw that the light was good, and he separated the light from the darkness. God called the light “day,” and the darkness he called “night.” And there was evening, and there was morning—the first day.
And God said, “Let there be a vault between the waters to separate water from water.” So God made the vault and separated the water under the vault from the water above it. And it was so. God called the vault “sky.” And there was evening, and there was morning—the second day.
And God said, “Let the water under the sky be gathered to one place, and let dry ground appear.” And it was so. God called the dry ground “land,” and the gathered waters he called “seas.” And God saw that it was good.
Borman concluded the broadcast with"And from the crew of Apollo 8, we close with good night, good luck, a Merry Christmas, and God bless all of you, all of you on the good Earth".
I was 8 years old in 1968, soon to be 9 as the year came to a close. I didn’t understand everything that had happened that year, but I knew it had been a terrible time across the board. The men of Apollo VIII reminded us that we all share this fragile world, and it’s all we have. I was also a firm believer in the Christian faith when I was 8, so the words from Genesis, broadcast from 200,000 miles away, were truly moving for me and for billions of others as well. Time magazine named Borman, Lovell and Anders as its Men of the Year for 1968, and the Earthrise photo taken by Anders was deemed by Life magazine to be one of the 100 most iconic photos of all time. When Apollo VIII returned safely to Earth, Borman received a telegram from an unknown sender who summed up what everyone on Earth felt. The telegram read:
“Thank you Apollo VIII. You saved 1968.”
Earthrise, as seen by the crew of Apollo VIII on 24 December, 1968
Thursday, December 2, 2010
2 Dec 1941-"Climb Mt. Niitaka" is transmitted from Tokyo to the Imperial Japanese Fleet
On 2 December, 1941, a powerful force of Japanese aircraft carriers, cruisers and destroyers were en route to Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. A smaller force was also en route to Singapore, home of the Royal Navy fleet guarding the British Empire in Asia. Both forces got underway on 26 November, awaiting the attack order/no attack order from Imperial Japanese Navy headquarters. The order to attack was dependent on the satisfactory conclusion of negotiations between the Japanese diplomats in Washington, who were holding regular meetings with U.S. Secretary of State Cordell Hull. If the negotiations were successful, the fleet would turn back. If not, the diplomats were to present the U.S. with a declaration of war, and the attack would commence.
The Japanese had been studying how to attack Pearl Harbor for years. They had modified their aerial torpedoes so that they could operate in the shallow waters of the Pearl Harbor anchorage, and the commander of the Japanese Navy, Admiral Yamamoto, had studied at the U.S. Naval War College. He knew his American counterparts very well, particularly their schedules. Saturday night was normally set aside for entertainment and poker playing (Yamamoto was an excellent card player), and Sunday was a day of rest, with liberty and church services for all hands. Sunday morning would be the best time to attack the fleet at Pearl Harbor, as operational readiness would be at the lowest point.
All the fleet needed to hear for the attack was a simple code phrase, which was “Climb Mt. Niitaka”. Niitaka is the highest mountain on Taiwan, which in 1941was a Japanese possession. The mountain had been climbed successfully in 1900 by a team of Japanese climbers, who named the mountain Niitaka, which means “new high mountain”. This name was given because Niitaka is even higher than sacred Mount Fuji on the island of Honshu. Niitaka is also a very difficult ascent, extremely challenging with a high chance of failure.
When the code phrase was transmitted, U.S. Navy cryptologists intercepted and translated it, but the phrase had no meaning. For the fleet commanders the meaning was perfectly clear. It meant that negotiations in Washington were not proceeding to Japan’s advantage, the the U.S. had no intention of lifting the oil and scrap metal embargo until Japan disengaged from its war in China and pulled its troops out of French Indochina (which after World War II would become the nations of Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos, but that’s another story), so the only alternative was war. The code phrase meant that all aircraft carriers and supporting ships were to be in place to attack Pearl Harbor and Singapore by 7/8 December. 7 December for Pearl Harbor, as it lay on the opposite side of the International Date line, and 8 December for Singapore.
The Japanese had been studying how to attack Pearl Harbor for years. They had modified their aerial torpedoes so that they could operate in the shallow waters of the Pearl Harbor anchorage, and the commander of the Japanese Navy, Admiral Yamamoto, had studied at the U.S. Naval War College. He knew his American counterparts very well, particularly their schedules. Saturday night was normally set aside for entertainment and poker playing (Yamamoto was an excellent card player), and Sunday was a day of rest, with liberty and church services for all hands. Sunday morning would be the best time to attack the fleet at Pearl Harbor, as operational readiness would be at the lowest point.
All the fleet needed to hear for the attack was a simple code phrase, which was “Climb Mt. Niitaka”. Niitaka is the highest mountain on Taiwan, which in 1941was a Japanese possession. The mountain had been climbed successfully in 1900 by a team of Japanese climbers, who named the mountain Niitaka, which means “new high mountain”. This name was given because Niitaka is even higher than sacred Mount Fuji on the island of Honshu. Niitaka is also a very difficult ascent, extremely challenging with a high chance of failure.
When the code phrase was transmitted, U.S. Navy cryptologists intercepted and translated it, but the phrase had no meaning. For the fleet commanders the meaning was perfectly clear. It meant that negotiations in Washington were not proceeding to Japan’s advantage, the the U.S. had no intention of lifting the oil and scrap metal embargo until Japan disengaged from its war in China and pulled its troops out of French Indochina (which after World War II would become the nations of Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos, but that’s another story), so the only alternative was war. The code phrase meant that all aircraft carriers and supporting ships were to be in place to attack Pearl Harbor and Singapore by 7/8 December. 7 December for Pearl Harbor, as it lay on the opposite side of the International Date line, and 8 December for Singapore.
Wednesday, December 1, 2010
1 Dec 1824-Deadlock in the Electoral College
The presidential election of 1824 was a mess from the start. There were four candidates vying for the White House that year and they were all from the same party, the Democratic-Republican party. The Federalist Party of George Washington and John Adams fell apart after Jefferson won the presidency in the election of 1800, leaving the country with one-party rule under the presidencies of Madison and Monroe. The candidates for 1824 were:
Andrew Jackson-Former Congressman, sitting Senator, hero of the Battle of New Orleans, and spokesman for the “common man”. Jackson, if elected, would be the first President not to attend college, the first President self-taught, and the first President from a state that was not part of the original 13 colonies: Tennessee.
John Quincy Adams-Secretary of State under President James Monroe, former ambassador to Russia, drafter of the Treaty of Ghent, which ended the War of 1812, former US Senator from Massachusetts, son of President John Adams.
Henry Clay-Sitting Speaker of the House of Representatives and Congressman from Kentucky. Like Jackson, if elected, he would be the first President from a state not part of the original colonies.
William H. Crawford-Secretary of the Treasury, former Secretary of War, former US Senator from Georgia, former US ambassador to France.
Each candidate ran strongly in the region where they were from, and when the dust settled the electoral college vote was:
Jackson-99
Adams-84
Crawford-41
Clay-37
Total Electoral Votes=261
Votes needed to win the White House-131
The 12th Amendment to the Constitution mandates that the President must win a majority of the electoral college votes to secure the White House, and if no candidate wins a majority, the election is thrown into the House of Representatives, with the top 3 electoral vote recipients vying for the prize. On 1 December 1824 the electoral votes were certified and the presidential election was placed in the hands of the House. Clay would have been eliminated under the provisions of the 12th Amendment, but Crawford, who had suffered a stroke earlier in the year, withdrew his name from the contest, leaving the election to Jackson, Adams and Clay. Clay despised Jackson, viewing him as uncouth and a butcher, as Jackson’s victory over the British at New Orleans came after the Treaty of Ghent was signed, thus ending hostilities. As they say in combat, “there’s always some son of a bitch who doesn’t get the word”. Clay realized that as the man with fewest electoral votes, and coming from the small state of Kentucky (taking notes, Senators McConnell and Paul?) there was little chance of him entering the White House; however, he was in an excellent position to act as kingmaker for the eventual winner. His position on tariffs and national funding of roads and other infrastructure projects was closer to that of John Quincy Adams, so he threw his support behind Adams. When the House voted on 9 February 1825, the support of Clay put Adams over the top. Under the 12th Amendment, each state delegation votes together, and Clay’s position as Speaker also helped Adams.
Jackson was outraged, as he had entered the contest with a plurality of electoral votes and strong popular vote support as well. His rage exploded when Adams offered the position of Secretary of State to Clay. Prior to the House vote an article had appeared in a Philadelphia newspaper stating that as a price for Clay’s support, Adams would name him Secretary of State. This was never investigated before the House voted, but once the vote was certified and Clay accepted the offer, Jackson screamed that a “corrupt bargain” had been reached, and he swore revenge come the 1828 election. The position of Secretary of State carried extra potency in the early 1800s, as Jefferson, Madison and Monroe had all served in the office and gone from there to the White House. To the casual observer it appeared that Adams was offering Clay a stepping stone to the White House via the top office in the cabinet.
Andrew Jackson-Former Congressman, sitting Senator, hero of the Battle of New Orleans, and spokesman for the “common man”. Jackson, if elected, would be the first President not to attend college, the first President self-taught, and the first President from a state that was not part of the original 13 colonies: Tennessee.
John Quincy Adams-Secretary of State under President James Monroe, former ambassador to Russia, drafter of the Treaty of Ghent, which ended the War of 1812, former US Senator from Massachusetts, son of President John Adams.
Henry Clay-Sitting Speaker of the House of Representatives and Congressman from Kentucky. Like Jackson, if elected, he would be the first President from a state not part of the original colonies.
William H. Crawford-Secretary of the Treasury, former Secretary of War, former US Senator from Georgia, former US ambassador to France.
Each candidate ran strongly in the region where they were from, and when the dust settled the electoral college vote was:
Jackson-99
Adams-84
Crawford-41
Clay-37
Total Electoral Votes=261
Votes needed to win the White House-131
The 12th Amendment to the Constitution mandates that the President must win a majority of the electoral college votes to secure the White House, and if no candidate wins a majority, the election is thrown into the House of Representatives, with the top 3 electoral vote recipients vying for the prize. On 1 December 1824 the electoral votes were certified and the presidential election was placed in the hands of the House. Clay would have been eliminated under the provisions of the 12th Amendment, but Crawford, who had suffered a stroke earlier in the year, withdrew his name from the contest, leaving the election to Jackson, Adams and Clay. Clay despised Jackson, viewing him as uncouth and a butcher, as Jackson’s victory over the British at New Orleans came after the Treaty of Ghent was signed, thus ending hostilities. As they say in combat, “there’s always some son of a bitch who doesn’t get the word”. Clay realized that as the man with fewest electoral votes, and coming from the small state of Kentucky (taking notes, Senators McConnell and Paul?) there was little chance of him entering the White House; however, he was in an excellent position to act as kingmaker for the eventual winner. His position on tariffs and national funding of roads and other infrastructure projects was closer to that of John Quincy Adams, so he threw his support behind Adams. When the House voted on 9 February 1825, the support of Clay put Adams over the top. Under the 12th Amendment, each state delegation votes together, and Clay’s position as Speaker also helped Adams.
Jackson was outraged, as he had entered the contest with a plurality of electoral votes and strong popular vote support as well. His rage exploded when Adams offered the position of Secretary of State to Clay. Prior to the House vote an article had appeared in a Philadelphia newspaper stating that as a price for Clay’s support, Adams would name him Secretary of State. This was never investigated before the House voted, but once the vote was certified and Clay accepted the offer, Jackson screamed that a “corrupt bargain” had been reached, and he swore revenge come the 1828 election. The position of Secretary of State carried extra potency in the early 1800s, as Jefferson, Madison and Monroe had all served in the office and gone from there to the White House. To the casual observer it appeared that Adams was offering Clay a stepping stone to the White House via the top office in the cabinet.
Thursday, November 4, 2010
4 November 1979-The Great Iranian Hostage Crisis Begins
President Carter’s presidency began to unravel on Sunday, 4 November, 1979. That was the date when several thousand Iranian students in Tehran overran the U.S. Embassy, seizing it and holding 52 American personnel hostage for the next 444 days. Relations between the U.S. and Iran had been plummeting ever since the Shah, Mohammed Reza Pahlavi, fled the country and the Ayatollah Khomeini returned to Iran from 15 years of exile.
The Shah and Carter had never seen eye to eye. Carter, with his genuine Christian faith, had serious problems with the Shah’s repressive rule, especially the Shah’s use of SAVAK, Iran’s secret police. Carter also knew that he needed the Shah to remain a U.S. ally, as Iran occupies a strategic position in southwest Asia, and the country also sits atop some of the world’s largest oil and natural gas reserves. Iran also hosted NSA listening posts on the Caspian Sea, which provided valuable insight into Soviet missile tests. These sites were also crucial to Carter’s ambition for a new SALT treaty with the Soviet Union, as the Senate would not ratify the treaty without verification measures provided by the NSA sites on the Caspian.
The Shah felt that Carter didn’t understand that a liberal, Western style democracy was simply not possible in a country like Iran. He also irrationally blamed Carter and the U.S. for increasing Iranian student unrest. When the Shah came to visit the U.S. in 1977, thousands of Iranian students protested against the visit, nearly shutting down Washington. A famous picture of that visit shows the Shah and Carter on the Truman balcony, both of them wiping their eyes from residual tear gas used to disperse the protests. I watched these protests on a bus ride home from high school, as my fellow McNamara students chanted “Sha-na-na-Sha-na-na get a job!”
Carter visited Tehran in January of 1978, and at a state banquet on New Years Day, he toasted the Shah as “a man beloved by his people” and Iran as “an island of stability in one of the more troubled areas of the world”. As 1978 progressed, more unrest began to roil Iran. By September the Shah was forced to put a military government in charge of the country, and the new government began to use lethal force against protesters. But as far as the CIA was concerned, everything in Iran was fine. A CIA assessment in August concluded that the Shah had firm control of SAVAK, the police and the military, and that the country was not in a revolutionary or even a pre-revolutionary state.
The U.S. ambassador to Iran, William Sullivan, had a different take on the situation in Iran. By talking to students, middle class Iranians, and observing the growing use of lethal force against protesters, Sullivan realized that the Shah’s days were numbered. On 9 November, 1978, Sullivan sent a cable to Washington entitled “Thinking the Unthinkable”. The cable outlined the growing unrest in Iran, the hatred most Iranians had for the Shah, and--most alarmingly--the growing religious fervor sweeping the country. Sullivan said that all these factors could force the Shah to abdicate in the very near future, which is precisely what happened on 16 January, 1979, when the Shah and his wife left the country.
Unknown to the CIA and Carter, the Shah was suffering from advanced lymphatic cancer. He was in Mexico in October of 1979, when he petitioned Carter to allow him to enter the United States for cancer treatment at New York’s Soan Kettering center. On 20 October, Carter, ever the Christian, allowed the Shah to come to the U.S. on compassionate grounds. Allowing the Shah to enter the United States enraged student protesters in Tehran and the newly formed government of Khomeini, who demanded that the U.S. send the Shah back to Iran to stand trial for “crimes against humanity”. Carter, knowing that sending the Shah back would seal his fate, refused.
On Sunday, 4 November, thousands of students gathered outside the U.S. Embassy, chanting “death to America, death to the Shah!”. As the crowd began to press against the gates of the embassy, the Iranian security forces drew back, leaving the embassy open to the student protesters. Some of the protesters had metal cutters, which they used to cut the bolts on the embassy’s gates. Once the gates were forced opened, the students rushed into the compound. The Americans were in the process of destroying sensitive documents when the students burst in and surrounded the staff. Soon, the Americans were blindfolded and led outside the compound to the jeers of thousands of protesters outside the embassy.
President Carter was awakened on Sunday morning by his National Security Advisor, Zbigniew Brzezinski, who informed the President that the embassy had been overrun and that at least 50 Americans had been taken hostage. Later that morning networks broke into their regular programming with video of the embassy seizure and pictures of blindfolded Americans surrounded by Iranian students. As a sophomore in college, I was stunned at the news, but like President Carter, I expected the crisis to be quickly resolved. Little did I, or the President, realize how much this crisis would consume the country.
The Shah and Carter had never seen eye to eye. Carter, with his genuine Christian faith, had serious problems with the Shah’s repressive rule, especially the Shah’s use of SAVAK, Iran’s secret police. Carter also knew that he needed the Shah to remain a U.S. ally, as Iran occupies a strategic position in southwest Asia, and the country also sits atop some of the world’s largest oil and natural gas reserves. Iran also hosted NSA listening posts on the Caspian Sea, which provided valuable insight into Soviet missile tests. These sites were also crucial to Carter’s ambition for a new SALT treaty with the Soviet Union, as the Senate would not ratify the treaty without verification measures provided by the NSA sites on the Caspian.
The Shah felt that Carter didn’t understand that a liberal, Western style democracy was simply not possible in a country like Iran. He also irrationally blamed Carter and the U.S. for increasing Iranian student unrest. When the Shah came to visit the U.S. in 1977, thousands of Iranian students protested against the visit, nearly shutting down Washington. A famous picture of that visit shows the Shah and Carter on the Truman balcony, both of them wiping their eyes from residual tear gas used to disperse the protests. I watched these protests on a bus ride home from high school, as my fellow McNamara students chanted “Sha-na-na-Sha-na-na get a job!”
Carter visited Tehran in January of 1978, and at a state banquet on New Years Day, he toasted the Shah as “a man beloved by his people” and Iran as “an island of stability in one of the more troubled areas of the world”. As 1978 progressed, more unrest began to roil Iran. By September the Shah was forced to put a military government in charge of the country, and the new government began to use lethal force against protesters. But as far as the CIA was concerned, everything in Iran was fine. A CIA assessment in August concluded that the Shah had firm control of SAVAK, the police and the military, and that the country was not in a revolutionary or even a pre-revolutionary state.
The U.S. ambassador to Iran, William Sullivan, had a different take on the situation in Iran. By talking to students, middle class Iranians, and observing the growing use of lethal force against protesters, Sullivan realized that the Shah’s days were numbered. On 9 November, 1978, Sullivan sent a cable to Washington entitled “Thinking the Unthinkable”. The cable outlined the growing unrest in Iran, the hatred most Iranians had for the Shah, and--most alarmingly--the growing religious fervor sweeping the country. Sullivan said that all these factors could force the Shah to abdicate in the very near future, which is precisely what happened on 16 January, 1979, when the Shah and his wife left the country.
Unknown to the CIA and Carter, the Shah was suffering from advanced lymphatic cancer. He was in Mexico in October of 1979, when he petitioned Carter to allow him to enter the United States for cancer treatment at New York’s Soan Kettering center. On 20 October, Carter, ever the Christian, allowed the Shah to come to the U.S. on compassionate grounds. Allowing the Shah to enter the United States enraged student protesters in Tehran and the newly formed government of Khomeini, who demanded that the U.S. send the Shah back to Iran to stand trial for “crimes against humanity”. Carter, knowing that sending the Shah back would seal his fate, refused.
On Sunday, 4 November, thousands of students gathered outside the U.S. Embassy, chanting “death to America, death to the Shah!”. As the crowd began to press against the gates of the embassy, the Iranian security forces drew back, leaving the embassy open to the student protesters. Some of the protesters had metal cutters, which they used to cut the bolts on the embassy’s gates. Once the gates were forced opened, the students rushed into the compound. The Americans were in the process of destroying sensitive documents when the students burst in and surrounded the staff. Soon, the Americans were blindfolded and led outside the compound to the jeers of thousands of protesters outside the embassy.
President Carter was awakened on Sunday morning by his National Security Advisor, Zbigniew Brzezinski, who informed the President that the embassy had been overrun and that at least 50 Americans had been taken hostage. Later that morning networks broke into their regular programming with video of the embassy seizure and pictures of blindfolded Americans surrounded by Iranian students. As a sophomore in college, I was stunned at the news, but like President Carter, I expected the crisis to be quickly resolved. Little did I, or the President, realize how much this crisis would consume the country.
Friday, October 29, 2010
30 October 1956-UK and France Enter the Second Arab-Israeli War
By the morning of 30 October, 1956, Israeli troops were deep in the Sinai, steadily pushing the Egyptian forces westward towards the Suez Canal. The United States introduced a resolution in the UN Security Council, calling for an immediate cease fire and a withdrawal of both Egyptian and Israeli forces to the armistice lines drawn after the conclusion of the First Arab-Israeli War of 1948-49. When the vote in the Security Council was called, France and the United Kingdom vetoed the resolution. Since both were permanent members of the UN, their vetoes killed the cease fire motion. The Soviet Union then introduced a similar resolution, which was also vetoed by France and the UK. These vetoes alarmed the US, and also provided more evidence that both countries were somehow involved in the military action taking place in Sinai.
President Eisenhower was concerned over the lack of intelligence on French and British intentions in the Egyptian-Israeli conflict. Ike was so much in the dark that he speculated that “the hand of Churchill” rather than of Prime Minister Sir Anthony Eden, might be behind the British Suez adventure, since it was “in the mid-Victorian style”. (For the President’s Eyes Only, p. 233). Shortly after 10 that morning, an erroneous report came in that British and French forces were about to land at Suez. The report was wrong, but it was eerily prophetic, as an invasion of Egypt and France was part of the British/French/Israeli plot. After Eisenhower received the report of the landing, he drafted a message to Prime Minister Eden, stating that “the UK and U.S. quickly and clearly lay our their present views and intentions before each other”. Ike went further in the message, confronting Eden with some of the intelligence the U.S. had regarding the French and British build up of aircraft on Cyprus and in Israel, and the fact that the day before Israel invaded the Sinai, NSA reported a sharp spike in encrypted traffic between Paris and Tel Aviv.
Eisenhower’s message to Eden reached London just as Eden was addressing Parliament on the current crisis. Eden then stated that Paris and London were presenting an ultimatum to both Israel and Egypt to withdraw ten miles from the Suez Canal within 12 hours, and then permit Anglo-French occupation of key points along the Canal. The ultimatum, coupled with the previous veto of the UN Security Council cease fire resolution, showed that all three countries were in collusion. Israel said it would comply, but Egypt refused.
When news of the ultimatum reached Eisenhower, he exploded into one of his famous rages. The persona of the grinning, amiable Ike was for public consumption, but in reality he was a coldly calculating, firm leader who truly despised being double-crossed. As the ultimatum was read out, Eisenhower erupted with a string of curses, and then placed an immediate phone call to Prime Minister Eden. When the call was completed, it went to Eden’s press secretary by mistake. Eisenhower, thinking he was talking to Eden, poured forth his invective, concluding with “Anthony, I don’t know what the hell you think you’re doing, but you’ve gone out of your fucking mind!”
President Eisenhower was concerned over the lack of intelligence on French and British intentions in the Egyptian-Israeli conflict. Ike was so much in the dark that he speculated that “the hand of Churchill” rather than of Prime Minister Sir Anthony Eden, might be behind the British Suez adventure, since it was “in the mid-Victorian style”. (For the President’s Eyes Only, p. 233). Shortly after 10 that morning, an erroneous report came in that British and French forces were about to land at Suez. The report was wrong, but it was eerily prophetic, as an invasion of Egypt and France was part of the British/French/Israeli plot. After Eisenhower received the report of the landing, he drafted a message to Prime Minister Eden, stating that “the UK and U.S. quickly and clearly lay our their present views and intentions before each other”. Ike went further in the message, confronting Eden with some of the intelligence the U.S. had regarding the French and British build up of aircraft on Cyprus and in Israel, and the fact that the day before Israel invaded the Sinai, NSA reported a sharp spike in encrypted traffic between Paris and Tel Aviv.
Eisenhower’s message to Eden reached London just as Eden was addressing Parliament on the current crisis. Eden then stated that Paris and London were presenting an ultimatum to both Israel and Egypt to withdraw ten miles from the Suez Canal within 12 hours, and then permit Anglo-French occupation of key points along the Canal. The ultimatum, coupled with the previous veto of the UN Security Council cease fire resolution, showed that all three countries were in collusion. Israel said it would comply, but Egypt refused.
When news of the ultimatum reached Eisenhower, he exploded into one of his famous rages. The persona of the grinning, amiable Ike was for public consumption, but in reality he was a coldly calculating, firm leader who truly despised being double-crossed. As the ultimatum was read out, Eisenhower erupted with a string of curses, and then placed an immediate phone call to Prime Minister Eden. When the call was completed, it went to Eden’s press secretary by mistake. Eisenhower, thinking he was talking to Eden, poured forth his invective, concluding with “Anthony, I don’t know what the hell you think you’re doing, but you’ve gone out of your fucking mind!”
Thursday, October 28, 2010
29 October 1956-Suez Crisis Erupts into Full War
29 October 1956-The Second Arab-Israeli War began with a drop of Israeli airborne troops into the Sinai peninsula. In keeping with the agreement reached in Sevres, France on 24 October, 1956, Israel’s attack on Egypt was designed to make Egypt fight, thus “imperiling” the Suez Canal. This would necessitate an ultimatum from France and the UK for both sides to cease fighting and to withdraw to a buffer zone away from the canal. Israel would comply, Egypt would refuse, enabling the UK and France to bomb and invade Egypt so that the Suez canal would revert to their rightful owners.
Israel’s main objectives on the first day of the invasion were the capture of the Gaza Strip and the town of Sharm el-Sheikh, which is at the base of the Sinai peninsula. The Egyptian blockade of the Strait of Tiran, which leads to the Red Sea from the Gulf of Aqaba, was based at Sharm el Sheikh. Capturing this town would open the Red Sea to Israeli commerce. Capturing the Gaza strip would eliminate the Fedayen base camps which were used as staging areas for raids into Israel, and also prevent the Egyptians from using this territory to block the Israeli infantry and armor advance.
As in all wars, the plans which look so elegant and wonderful at HQ tend to go wrong when actually executed. The Israeli plan called for a paratroop drop into the Sinai, catching the Egyptians by surprise, thus clearing the path for a rapid advance of Israeli armor forces into the peninsula. The paratroopers dropped several miles from their objectives, and wasted valuable time in regrouping for the assault on Egyptian forces guarding the passes that required capture for the rapid advance of the IDF. While the the paratroopers struggled, the plan to disrupt Egypt’s command and control went down flawlessly, as Israeli P-51 fighters flew at treetop level, using their propellers to cut all the telephone and telegraph wires used by the Egyptian high command to relay instructions. In the South the Israeli forces conquered the town of Ras an-Naqb by complete surprise before the Egyptians had time to ready their defenses. The Egyptians surrendered the town without a fight, and the Israelis suffered no casualties. Capture of this strongpoint provided a vital anchor for the assault on Sharm el-Sheikh, which would take place in the next few days.
Israel also demonstrated superb expertise in the use of jet fighters for close air support of advancing infantry and armor units, as its newly acquired Mystere fighters dove and strafed Egyptian forces, clearing the path for the Israelis to advance towards the Canal. Punishing air strikes by the Mysteres allowed for quick advances, since the infantry and armor units didn’t have to wait for artillery units to move and position themselves for fire-support.
News of the invasion reached President Eisenhower as he was departing on a campaign swing through Florida and Virginia (Ike was up for re-election in 1956). The President was concerned at the speed and depth of the Israeli advance into the Sinai, as by nightfall the Israelis were a mere 25 miles east of the Suez canal. Ike was also worried that the French and British were somehow involved in this military action. He had ordered U-2 flights of Cyprus and Israel on 27 October, and those missions had shown large amounts of British and French attack and transport aircraft in both countries. The mission over Cyprus showed that the two main RAF airfields were crammed to the bursting with aircraft, necessitating the use of a third auxiliary field which could barely support modern warplanes. Another source of concern for Eisenhower was the growing threat of a Soviet invasion of Hungary to crush that country’s democratic revolt. Eisenhower knew that it would be next to impossible to get the UN to condemn the Soviet action if the UK and France were colluding with Israel in aggression against Egypt. He was suspicious of his NATO allies, but he had no concrete proof of the collusion. NSA had identified enciphered communication links between Paris, London and Tel Aviv, but each country could explain that away as routine planning and coordination. The U2 photos of Cyprus and Israel were problematic, as only the UK and the US knew about the ultra-secret radar evading plane that flew at 70,000 feet and produced crystal-clear photos of Soviet installations. Eisenhower couldn’t confront the French with this evidence, as that would blow his one insight into the US’ ability to determine the nature and strength of the Soviet arms program. All he could do was wait for some sort of overt action from the UK and France. That action would come in 24 hours.
Israel’s main objectives on the first day of the invasion were the capture of the Gaza Strip and the town of Sharm el-Sheikh, which is at the base of the Sinai peninsula. The Egyptian blockade of the Strait of Tiran, which leads to the Red Sea from the Gulf of Aqaba, was based at Sharm el Sheikh. Capturing this town would open the Red Sea to Israeli commerce. Capturing the Gaza strip would eliminate the Fedayen base camps which were used as staging areas for raids into Israel, and also prevent the Egyptians from using this territory to block the Israeli infantry and armor advance.
As in all wars, the plans which look so elegant and wonderful at HQ tend to go wrong when actually executed. The Israeli plan called for a paratroop drop into the Sinai, catching the Egyptians by surprise, thus clearing the path for a rapid advance of Israeli armor forces into the peninsula. The paratroopers dropped several miles from their objectives, and wasted valuable time in regrouping for the assault on Egyptian forces guarding the passes that required capture for the rapid advance of the IDF. While the the paratroopers struggled, the plan to disrupt Egypt’s command and control went down flawlessly, as Israeli P-51 fighters flew at treetop level, using their propellers to cut all the telephone and telegraph wires used by the Egyptian high command to relay instructions. In the South the Israeli forces conquered the town of Ras an-Naqb by complete surprise before the Egyptians had time to ready their defenses. The Egyptians surrendered the town without a fight, and the Israelis suffered no casualties. Capture of this strongpoint provided a vital anchor for the assault on Sharm el-Sheikh, which would take place in the next few days.
Israel also demonstrated superb expertise in the use of jet fighters for close air support of advancing infantry and armor units, as its newly acquired Mystere fighters dove and strafed Egyptian forces, clearing the path for the Israelis to advance towards the Canal. Punishing air strikes by the Mysteres allowed for quick advances, since the infantry and armor units didn’t have to wait for artillery units to move and position themselves for fire-support.
News of the invasion reached President Eisenhower as he was departing on a campaign swing through Florida and Virginia (Ike was up for re-election in 1956). The President was concerned at the speed and depth of the Israeli advance into the Sinai, as by nightfall the Israelis were a mere 25 miles east of the Suez canal. Ike was also worried that the French and British were somehow involved in this military action. He had ordered U-2 flights of Cyprus and Israel on 27 October, and those missions had shown large amounts of British and French attack and transport aircraft in both countries. The mission over Cyprus showed that the two main RAF airfields were crammed to the bursting with aircraft, necessitating the use of a third auxiliary field which could barely support modern warplanes. Another source of concern for Eisenhower was the growing threat of a Soviet invasion of Hungary to crush that country’s democratic revolt. Eisenhower knew that it would be next to impossible to get the UN to condemn the Soviet action if the UK and France were colluding with Israel in aggression against Egypt. He was suspicious of his NATO allies, but he had no concrete proof of the collusion. NSA had identified enciphered communication links between Paris, London and Tel Aviv, but each country could explain that away as routine planning and coordination. The U2 photos of Cyprus and Israel were problematic, as only the UK and the US knew about the ultra-secret radar evading plane that flew at 70,000 feet and produced crystal-clear photos of Soviet installations. Eisenhower couldn’t confront the French with this evidence, as that would blow his one insight into the US’ ability to determine the nature and strength of the Soviet arms program. All he could do was wait for some sort of overt action from the UK and France. That action would come in 24 hours.
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